As the global population climbs toward 10 billion and climate change strains farmland, scientists are searching for new ways to feed the world. A group of Cornell food science researchers say one answer may lie not in fields of soy or herds of cattle, but in networks of fungi quietly transforming agricultural waste into food.

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In a sweeping new review published on Feb. 11 in Trends in Food Science & Technology, a team led by Ke Wang, corresponding author and assistant research professor of food science at Cornell AgriTech in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, outlines an “emerging circular fungal biorefinery” – a system in which low-value agricultural byproducts are converted through fungal fermentation into high-protein, nutrient-rich foods.

“The main driver of this type of research is identifying new and sustainable food sources,” Wang said. “We looked at all the possible perspectives and tried to understand the technologies and the research gaps.”

Their aim was to identify the value-addable products that could be extracted or generated through precision fermentation, drawn from waste streams in agriculture, food processing and manufacturing or even household waste, said Krishna Kalyani Sahoo, first author and postdoctoral researcher. 

Their review showed that fungal fermentation has the potential to upcycle low-value agricultural and food wastes into nutritious, sustainable foods. Its success, though, depends on integrating advanced processing technologies and finding ways to enhance yield, functionality and product quality.

Fungi, long used in traditional foods like tempeh, miso and cheese, are gaining renewed attention as modern biotechnology tools make it possible to fine-tune their growth and nutritional output. Certain strains have long underpinned products like Quorn, a meat substitute that has been on the market for decades.

The Cornell-led review argues that the field is entering a new phase, one that treats fungi not merely as alternative protein sources, but as biological engines capable of transforming food waste into next-generation meat analogues and functional foods.

Agricultural residues, food-processing byproducts and other organic waste streams are typically discarded, composted or underutilized. Yet these materials are rich in carbohydrates and other nutrients. Wang points to mixed green waste from farmlands or fruit pomace from the grape or apple industries. With proper pre-treatment – mechanical, thermal or biological – they could serve as feedstock for fungal growth, she said.

“Fungi are remarkably efficient at converting complex biomass into structured proteins,” Wang said. “And they are the most promising substitute for animal-based protein. Beyond their high protein content, they are rich in minerals and other bioactive compounds beneficial to human health.”

The concept aligns with the broader push toward a circular bioeconomy, in which waste from one system becomes input for another. Rather than growing crops exclusively for protein extraction, fungal systems could “upcycle” side-streams that do not compete with human food supplies.

But growing edible fungi at scale is not as simple as placing spores in a vat. The review found that fungal fermentation is a finely tuned, multifactorial process – a process that can be expensive. Variables such as carbon-to-nitrogen ratios, temperature, aeration and bioreactor design can dramatically influence yields.

Advanced techniques like co-cultivation – growing multiple microbial species together – and genetic engineering may further enhance productivity or tailor fungi to produce specific amino acids or bioactive compounds.

Fungal mycelium, which is the fibrous root-like network that forms the underground body of the organism, naturally mimics the texture of muscle fibers, offering a structural advantage over many plant-based proteins that require extensive processing to approximate meat.

Still, consumer perception is a hurdle, said Kalyani Sahoo. While younger consumers and “reducetarians” show interest in sustainability framing, particularly the idea of upcycling waste, some people associate fungi with mold or decay. Food technology neophobia, or skepticism toward novel production methods, can dampen acceptance. Overcoming those barriers requires careful storytelling, Kalyani Sahoo said.

If accomplished, the efforts would yield not just a meat substitute, but a distributed biorefinery model capable of converting regional waste streams into locally produced, high-value foods.